Shakespeare’s Almanack

The Guardian or Gatekeeper of the Year’s end Janus, the two-headed God.

In my recently published book, “Shakespeare’s Qaballah”, (A Companion to Shakespeare Studies) I also mentioned that Elizabethan plays were usually commissioned for performance at court either to entertain some visiting foreign dignitary, to celebrate a state occasion/wedding or some military or diplomatic achievement. (See “The Elizabethan Festival Cycle”). Depending on their success and popularity the court plays might then go on to be performed at one of the public theatres, usually in London such as the Globe, Curtain or Blackfriars. Plays were also commissioned for the annual Queen’s procession through the provinces where she was officially received by the leading aristocrat in any particular estate or county. The time and location for these events was also considered auspicious and appropriate to the event or occasion and intended to coincide with the Elizabethan calendar. In that particular essay I laid out briefly when certain plays were generally performed and how their narrative, theme or plot would resonate with say a particular festive occasion (eg: Epiphany-Twelfth Night, St. John the Baptist Day, midsummer). Because Elizabethan or Tudor calendars were still aligned to the Julian calendar the “English Year” began officially on the 24th March (St. Mark’s Eve), which was publicly celebrated on April Fool’s Day (1st April), commemorating the arrival of Spring and the end of Winter. To the English Elizabethan mindset the Scottish ‘hogmanay’ (celebrated on the last day of the year) remained a ‘barbaric feast’ when infants were given gifts of oatcakes and Saturnalian excesses were the run of the mill. The Scottish Presbyterian Church had of course banned the pagan feast of Christmas preferring instead the celebration of the New Year feast Hogmanay. There was of course no Santa Claus as such and Christ’s Mass was a more sombre occasion with hymns, carol singers, sermons, mystery or miracle plays, feasting and ales. Special Saint’s days were also occasions for staging plays so it is more than coincidence that the following month, the 23rd of April England, as well as the monarch herself, celebrated and honoured St. George’s Day (England’s patron saint). This was preceded by Candlemass (2nd February) that occurred before St. Valentine’s Day (14th February) and Shrovetide (Pancake Day, aka: ‘Shrove Tuesday’ a variable date) when excesses, frivolities and luxuries were ‘cast off’ and a more serious period of fasting or ‘shriving’ was endured by the pious. The four apostles (Matthew, Mark Luke & John) divided the year into 4 celebratory phases, St. John the Baptist’s Day was celebrated on the 24th of June (Midsummer), St. Matthew’s Day was celebrated on the 21st of September (Autumn), then St. Michael’s Day was celebrated on the 29th of September, and St. Luke’s Day was celebrated on the 18th October. Then All Soul’s Day (31st October) signalled the end of Autumn and the commencement of Winter.

This was usually followed by the Queen’s return from her country estate to Westminster for the annual Accession Celebrations on November 17th which included Queen Elizabeth Day on the 19th. This was considered a national holiday by the Exchequer, the schools of Westminster and the Inns of Court where bonfires were usually lit accompanied by fireworks as well as triumphs or jousts of peace where a challenger is chosen to lead the contest. Elizabeth usually rode in a litter while a renowned nobleman bore the sword of state and the Master of the Horse led her palfrey accompanied by the Lord Mayor of London with hundreds of burgesses in costume and gold chains.

A 16th century pageant featuring a “mobile stage on wheels”

One particular Xmas feast day or celebration observed by English Freemasons was the 27th of December (St. John the Evangelist’s Day) so plays were commissioned and performed especially for this event usually at court or Whitehall Palace.

In his book “The Shakespeare Enigma” Peter Dawkins suggests and illustrates that Sir Francis Bacon (Baron Verulam) was the 33rd Degree grandmaster of the Grand Lodge of St. Albans, an institution which goes back to early Medieval times. A list of companies performing at the court of Elizabeth 1st on St. John the Evangelist’s Day – December 27th. Which is taken from “Dramatic Records in the Declared Accounts of the Treasurer of the Chamber 1558-1642” The Malone Society 1961 (1962).
1579 Earl of Sussex’s men
1581 Lord Hunsdon’s men
1583 Children of the Earl of Oxford
1584 Lord Admiral’s men
1586 Earl of Leicester’s Players
1587 Children of St. Paul’s (John Lyly’s company)
1589 Lord Strange’s men
1590 Lord Strange’s men
1591 Lord Strange’s men
1595 Lord Hunsdon’s men
1596 Lord Chamberlain’s men (possibly “Love’s Labour’s Lost”)
1597 Lord Admiral’s men
1598 Lord Admiral’s men
1600 Lord Admiral’s men

Among the Grand Masters of Freemasonry per se were Sir William Herbert (Earl of Pembroke) Grandmaster of the Masonic Lodge (from 1618-1630), presumed to be an unconfirmed patron of “William Shake-speare”. According to James Anderson, William Herbert became a Grand Warden of the English masons in 1607 and their Grand Master in 1618. Furthermore, a theatre was named ‘The Rose’ and nearby the Rose Tavern was a known venue where members of the Rosicrucian circle regularly met to share their experiences and discuss their individual specialised work and research (See: “The Secret Alchemy of Shakespeare” and “Masonic Ciphers & Symbolism in Shakespeare’s Publications”). While the general or accepted theory is that Rosicrucianism migrated from Germany into England it may have been the other way around since Michael Maeir visited England from Prague in 1611 and met with the poet Francis Thynne and musician/composer John Dowland. The Lord Admiral, Charles Howard, Lord Effingham (a patron of the Admiral’s Men), was the Grand Master of the Freemasons in the South of England until 1588. We should take note that Shakespeare’s “Love’s Labour’s Lost” was also performed at court on St. John the Evangelist‘s day, so we have probably stumbled on a common theme within plays arranged for that particular date. On December 27th 1604 a masque was held at court to celebrate the marriage of Philip Herbert, Earl of Montgomery, to Lady Susan de Vere, daughter of the 17th Earl of Oxford, Edward de Vere. The Earl of Oxford (a 28th degree Mason) is thought by many academics to be the anonymous author of the 1623 Shakespeare Folio. Phillip Herbert, together with his elder brother William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, were the major dedicatees (The Incomparable and Honourable Brethren or “Two Noble Kinsmen”) of the First Shakespeare Folio of 1623. Sir John Florio, an author, poet and translator was secretary to Henry Wriosthesley, the Earl of Southampton presumed by many academics as a confirmed Freemason as was Florio whose descendants by the way were Italian Jews. There is good stylistic and linguistic evidence recently published by Saul Frampton to confirm that Florio was the sole and final editor of the 1623 Shakespeare Folio. Although this particular masque has not survived as far as we know, we have a description of its participants. Among “The Actors were, the Earl of Pembroke, the Lord Willoughby, Sir Samuel Hays, Sir Thomas Germain, Sir Robert Carey, Sir John Lee, Sir Richard Preston, and Sir Thomas Bager…”. Our fourth notable St. John’s day event at court was the betrothal of the Fredericke Vth, Elector Palatine and the Princess Elizabeth Stuart on the 27th December 1612. It has been suggested that “Shakespeare’s” “The Tempest” was played on that date and that King James 1st was also present. His connections to Freemasonry evolved from the Scottish Lodge prior to his accession to the English throne.

A diagrammatic representation of the “Pagan Year” with the major Celtic festivals, dates, and Zodiac signs.

However, since the act of union we also celebrate St. Andrew’s Day (30th of November, Scotland’s patron saint), St. David’s Day (1st March, Wales’s patron saint), and St. Patrick’s Day (17th March, Ireland’s patron saint). Roman Catholic saint’s days were not officially celebrated since they were abolished during Henry VIIIth’s reign. During the 16th century there were over 40 Saint’s Days celebrated annually along with the trades days celebrating for example the patron saint of shoemakers, weavers, glovers and hat-makers to name but a few trades or occupations who took the day off to celebrate their individual patrons. Interwoven with many of these Anglican liturgical saint’s days were the Celtic or pagan divisions of the yearly round such as Imbolc or Oimele (1st February), Brigantia or Beltane (1st May), Lugnasad or Lammas (1st August), and Samhuinn or Samhain (1st November). Within the weft and warp of this annual tapestry are the occasional pagan (Celtic, Norse or Roman) in celebration from their own calendar (eg: The Coligny Calendar-France) such as St. Valentine’s Day instituted by the Pope to celebrate the life and death of a certain Christian Valentinius who during a religious purge was arrested for helping early Christians flee persecution, he was beheaded on the 14th of February. Coincidentally, the Roman festival of Lupercalia (15th February) was held to honour the goddess Februata Juno who presided over those rituals determining the marriage of young girls to boys of a marriageable age. It was determined by an unusual form of lottery where girls placed identity tokens into a large vase or urn and the boys then took turns to pick out a token which would effectively decide who they should marry that year. Theatrical performances ceased with the onset of Shrovetide thereby introducing the Lenten period when plays ceased to be performed for purely religious reasons until the beginning of Easter.

We know from records kept by the theatre managers and those held at the Stationer’s Office when plays were registered, commissioned and performed which gives us some indication of those plays that appealed to the public or nobility at large. Certain plays from the Elizabethan era have a seasonal or festive theme or quality about them and it is quite likely that Shakespeare’s plays were no exception as the ‘tide of time or place’ was considered worthy of celebration or commemoration. The three main cycles of drama and festivity are demonstrated as interdependent, the first denotes Birth/Creation (nativity-winter solstice), the second Life/Maintenance (vernal equinox) and the third Death/Sacrifice (midsummer solstice). The nativity cycle actually began with the end of the old pagan New Year (All Hallow’s Eve) following through to the 12 days of Christmas (Saturnalia), the Feast of the Purification (Candlemas) and the Annunciation through to Valentine’s Day (a Roman Feast). The cycle of life or passion, depending on your standpoint, incorporated Shrovetide, Lent, and Easter through to Corpus Christi. The cycle of death became a conglomeration of pagan (ie: rural/agricultural) and other popular festivals. A typical example was the newly instituted Guy Fawkes Night which coincides with the pagan death of the old year. Tourneys or martial competitions usually fell at times when there was a turning point or conflict between the forces of darkness and those of light (ie: spring or late summer). As a rule Puritans were anxious to exclude or boycott festivals born out of the Roman clerical tradition, pagans were keen to exclude all religious feast days except their own, while Protestant Christians were keen to exclude Roman and pagan festival traditions and Catholics were keen to re-instate their liturgical Saint’s Days whenever and wherever they could. It is clear that these conflicting ideologies placed a great deal of stress on the cultural fabric of Elizabethan cultural and religious society. Indeed, laying aside the problems of rightful accession of monarchs or papal authorities, it seemed almost inevitable that England, despite its grandiose cultural renaissance was heading for an ever greater national schism that would culminate in civil war and in questioning the divinely instituted and supreme authority of the monarch. In a series of monthly articles entitled “Shakespeare’s Almanack” I have explored the significance of numerous customs and traditions practised by the inhabitants of the British Isles in the past. I have explored their possible origins and meaning and why they remain as cultural vestiges of an English national and multi-cultural identity based on our Roman, Norman, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon past.

Under the Greenwood Tree by “William Shakespeare”

(from the play “As You Like It” written to commemorate the secret marriage of Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton and Elizabeth Vernon)

Under the greenwood tree
Who loves to lie with me,
And turn his merry note
Unto the sweet bird’s throat,
Come hither, come hither, come hither:
Here shall he see
No enemy
But winter and rough weather.

Who doth ambition shun
And loves to live i’ the sun,
Seeking the food he eats,
And pleased with what he gets,
Come hither, come hither, come hither:
Here shall he see
No enemy
But winter and rough weather.

The Month of January now begins our annual round, followed by The Month of February with its Valentine’s and Shrovetide customs which precedes The Month of March (Ides of March). Then we have the April Fool’s Day celebrations as an indicator that Winter has been left behind followed by the Merry Month of May and into the Month of June (“Midsummer Madness”June-July) culminating in the Midsummer customs and celebrations held late July. The Month of July, is usually a time of festivals and mock tournaments that precedes Autumn setting followed by the Month of August (Harvest Time) followed by the Month of September and the end of the Celtic year with the All Soul’s festivities at the end of the Month of October. The annual cycle then proceeds into Winter with the Month of November (Guy Fawkes Night) and then into Yuletide with the Month of December (Saturnalia).

The Lord Chamberlain & Master of the Revels

The performance of plays was under the jurisdiction and monitoring of the Lord Chamberlain and the Master of the Revels. No play could be performed publicly without their explicit knowledge and approval. Their role was to censor or remove any seditious or embarrassing material from the text or the performance itself. Indeed as an aspiring writer or dramatist there was no greater honour or acknowledgement of one’s expertise than to have a royal commission or have a play presented especially at court. It is generally acknowledged that plays were initially “tried out” either in the provinces or at the Inns, Schools or Universities before going public or in some instances being presented at court for the first time. However, as an erudite and educated woman, the Queen, who was not easily impressed, made her summer progresses visiting the provinces of Merrie England and these too were occasions where unique theatrical processions, masques or show-plays would be specially devised for her personal delight and approval. To attract the Queen’s eye and secure privilege was therefore an ideal goal for any actor, dramatist or poet and many were subsequently tempted to try their hand and obtain royal patronage. Among those who did were the Queen’s paramour Robert Dudley who presented “Gorboduc” (written by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton 1561/2), which offered moral counsel to the Queen on the advantages of marriage and the unity of the realm, something which she was not at the time inclined to pursue. “Gorboduc” was first performed at the Inner Temple in 1562 as a Senecan tragedy imbued with elements of the morality play or masque which coincided with the visit of King Phillip II of Spain, who was then a potential suitor. George Peele’s “Arraignment of Paris” (1580), another hybrid of play and masque, featured the handing of a golden apple (a symbol of Venus/Aphrodite) to the Queen seated in an enclosure which coincided with the visit of the Duke of Alençon to the English court.

Elizabeth’s unmarried status did not imply that festivities were few and far between, there were regular and consistent suitors eager to visit and implore her highness into marital bliss with expensive gifts and splendid entertainments on a grand and impressive scale. Among the eligible and unsuccessful suitors were Phillip of Spain, the kings of Denmark and Sweden, the Archdukes Charles and Ferdinand of Austria, the Duke of Alençon, the Duke of Nemours, the Earl of Arran, or other potential consorts such as the Earl of Arundel, Sir William Pickering, Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford, Sir Christopher Blount, Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Christopher Hatton, Sir Robert Devereux and Sir Robert Dudley to name but a few. The Spanish ambassador writing to Phillip of Spain noted in 1567: “The hatred that this Queen has for marriage is most strange”. However, during the 10-15 years of courtship she received by hopeful suitors masques, plays and festivities were a regular occurrence at court being managed and organised by the Master of the Horse, the Lord High Steward and the Lord Chamberlain who were themselves subordinate to the Privy Council and overseen by the Treasurer, the Cofferer and Comptroller of the Royal Household. Elizabeth’s first Lord Steward was Henry Earl of Arundel and when he resigned in 1564 he was succeeded in 1567 by William Earl of Pembroke. On his death in 1570 he was replaced by Sir Robert Dudley who previously held the office of Master of the Horse (1559-1587) who was himself replaced by the Earl of Essex (1587-1597) and after the Essex Rebellion was replaced by Edward Earl of Worcester (1597-1616). After Pembroke’s death the post of Lord Chamberlain was held by Sir Robert Dudley for a while and then transferred to Henry Earl of Derby who then was succeeded by the Earl of Nottingham. The Lord Chamberlain was William Lord Howard of Effingham (1558-1572) who was assisted in his duties by a Vice-Chamberlain and during Elizabeth’s and James’s reign was replaced by the Earl of Sussex (1572-1583) who was replaced by Charles Lord Effingham (1583-1585), who was later replaced by Henry Carey Lord Hunsdon (1585-1596) who was succeeded by Sir William Brooke, Lord Cobham (1596-7) who was succeeded by George Carey Lord Hunsdon (1597-1603) who was replaced by the Earl of Suffolk from 1603-1614. He in turn was superseded by the Earl of Somerset until 1615 and replaced by William Herbert (Mr. W.H?) until 1626.
The venues for court plays varied according to the time of year and who was being entertained but for the most part Westminster Palace or Whitehall were prominent as locations for presentations where nearby were St. James’s Palace, Somerset House and Durham House where ambassadors were usually lodged. The other principal locations were Greenwich Palace, Richmond Park, Hampton court and Windsor a few miles down the river Thames. The royal barge was moored nearby for the annual water-shows and processions. The sumptuous parks were also favoured for outdoor events such a mock tourneys, contests and competitions for example Eltham and Otford in Kent, Havering atte Bower in Essex, Hatfield in Hertfordshire, Enfield in Middlesex, Reading Abbey in Berkshire, and Woodstock in Oxfordshire. Windsor Castle was customarily the site of the annual Knight’s Garter Feast where plays were regularly staged on St. George’s Day, in particular it has been suggested that Shakespeare’s “Merrie Wives of Windsor” was first played there to commemorate the Queen’s annual coronation celebrations in 1592 when Frederick Count Mömpelgard, heir to the Duchy of Würtemburg called unexpectedly to persuade the Queen to enlist him into the Order of the Knight’s Garter in England. However, it is also suggested that it was the occasion for the knighting of George Carey, Lord Chamberlain and patron of Shakespeare’s company, when together with four other gentlemen was granted the Order of the Garter in April 23rd 1597. External Oxfordian evidence by Holland has established that the occasion for “Shakespeare’s” play was the 250th Anniversary of the Garter Knights on April 23rd 1593.

However, from 1544-1559 Sir Thomas Carden was Master of the Revels and he was succeeded by Sir Thomas Benger (1559-1572) he in turn was replaced by Edmund Tilney (1578-1610) and from 1610-1622 by Sir George Buck.

The Lord Chamberlain, Henry Carey (1583 Lord Chamberlain’s Men) objected to the lewd depiction of Sir John Oldcastle by “Shakespeare”, who he knew was a good and honest man who died a Protestant martyr. By this time the Privy Council became suspicious of theatrical plays that had cryptic allusions which would give rise to street riots and spontaneous rebellions in the streets of London. The post of Master of the Revels was then officially occupied by Edmund Tilney (?-1610) distantly related to the Howard family he was appointed to the office of Master of the Revels in 1579, enrolling actors for the Queen’s Men in 1583 and by 1589 was advising the Lord Mayor of London on the censorship of plays. His father actually fought alongside “Richard IIIrd”, and in 1597 he was awarded the Master of the Revels by Queen Elizabeth although the office had been promised to John Lyly, the Earl of Oxford’s private secretary. He worked alongside the incumbent Master of the Revels and did not succeed Edmund Tilney (died 1610) until 1608. George Buck (1562-1622) relocated the Master’s Office to St. Peter’s Hill in 1610. His personal signature appears on all the Shakespeare plays registered at the Stationer’s Office after 1606. Furthermore, Henry Carey (1st Baron Hunsdon)-1583 cousin and step-brother to Queen Elizabeth 1stwas the son of Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn’s sister and Sir William Carey although it was rumoured he was the illegitimate son of Henry VIIIth. His son George Carey (2nd Baron Hunsdon)-1596 succeeded his father Henry Carey serving under the Earl of Essex and undertaking missions to Scotland (1569-71). He acceded to his father’s title in 1595 and as Lord Chamberlain in 1596. The post gave him patronage of the company of Shakespeare and the Burbages (Cuthbert) firstly at the Theatre then moving to the Globe in December 1598. On the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603 he helped his son, Robert Carey (1560-1639) to escape to Scotland with the news to James VIth. He eventually became Earl of Monmouth in 1626. The other dubiously connected character from the Office of the Revels was Sir William Brooke (10th Baron Cobham) whose daughter Elizabeth Brooke married Robert Cecil in 1589, so Henry Brooke (11th Baron Cobham) became Robert’s brother-in-law. His son Henry Brooke (11th Lord Cobham) lived in Kent but had a residence at Blackfriar’s (as did Elizabeth Russell), he was succeeded by his son Henry (12th Lord Cobham) 1597. He opposed the return of James 1st and was accused of conspiracy in placing Arabella Stuart on the English throne. Arrested, imprisoned and questioned but was later released in 1603. For an in-depth analysis of these complex relationships and their repercussions see “The Follies of Stratfordian Presumption”.

On closer examination theatrical records from 1579-1621 kept by Sir Edmund Tilney and Sir George Buc have been lost or destroyed. Records at Gray’s Inn were unreliable if not concocted when the Countess of Southampton, whose son was Shakespeare’s patron, was managing the accounts and entries for her husband Sir Thomas Heneage; it seems these fabrications of payments were used to offset a long-standing debt to the Crown.

Publication & First Performance of Plays

An artist’s impression of the Elizabethan stage at the Globe theatre

The Earl of Derby’s players produced a play around Christmas 1582 featuring a neoclassical love story of a woman who falls in love with a man of low estate, it was published in 1589 under the title “The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune”. The Earl no doubt imploring the Queen to marry her Master of the Horse, Robert Dudley, who was not actually a natural aristocrat, but a rich and influential commoner. In contrast Sir Phillip Sidney’s “Lady of the May” (1578) was performed in honour of the Queen as a type of pagan Moon Goddess, the embodiment of spring or Fairy Queen and the play was first performed in May. A royal occasion staged by Lord and Lady Chandos in the autumn of 1592 celebrated her birthday (7th August) which coincided with the Feast of the Virgin Mary (8th August) where a full moon occurred thereby aligning the seasonal rural cycle with her new alter-ego, that of the chaste, virgin goddess. A conscious relationship between time and occasion as well as personality were an essential quality of court plays or masques thereby magically initiating some dramatic and historic parallel or association. However, for some the parallels went even deeper as Shakespeare’s production of “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” (which was written sometime around 1596 after the publication of Spenser’s “Fairie Queene” for the occasion of some aristocratic marriage) suggests a connection of Titania in “Ovid’s Metamorphoses” in which she is akin to the goddess Diana or perhaps Circe, a chthonic deity or witch and even Galathea, a feisty Amazonian female, the equal of any man. John Lyly continued to represent or evoke the Queen as a chaste sovereign in another play called “Gallathea”, where sexual politics, the power of the state and marriage were the main subject. Similarly, Lyly’s play “Midas” was written for performance on “Twelfth Night” 1590 to celebrate the defeat of the Armada and satirise Phillip II of Spain as an ass consumed by avarice. Again Thomas Dekker’s “Old Fortunatus” (1599) was written to be specially performed on December 27th celebrating the Queen as Astraea (Queen of Heaven), the May Queen in popular folklore where the Queen rejects sexual indulgence in favour of virtue on behalf of her nation. This was followed by a play entitled “The Shoemaker’s Holiday” performed on Shrovetide and featuring in dramatic background New Year’s Day which suggests a fusion of several seasonal festivities or commemorations. It coincides with the enthronement of the Lord Mayor (Oct 29th) and the Feast of St. Hugh, the patron saint of shoemakers, which took place on November 17th, the day of the Queen’s accession. Although written much earlier, the performance of Shakespeare’s “Richard IIIrd”, which coincided with the Earl of Essex’s rebellion was clearly intended as a condemnation of Elizabeth’s reign and an incitement to treason and rebellion.

A play called “Liberality and Prodigality” parallels the Earl of Essex’s fortunes and was performed on Shrove Tuesday 1601 which coincided with the trial of the Earl of Essex and may have been an attempt to elicit some mercy from the Queen, but as Lent had begun she condemned his actions and he was obliged to don the hair-shirt until the day of his execution. Therefore time, place and celebrity were the dramatic or literary denominators for the majority of courtly presentations, for example the occasion of the performance of “Twelfth Night” in 1601, which features music, dance, song, poetry and drama coincided with the visit of Virginio Orsino, Duke of Bracchiano representing Tuscany as well as the Russian ambassador. However, not all playwrights sacrificed their artistic independence to gain favour at court. In direct contrast Ben Jonson’s “Cynthia’s Revels”, which is of a similar mixed genre originally written for the Boy’s Chapel, savagely satirises the nefarious patronising practices at court. He was not the first, nor was he the last to lampoon the aristocracy with his dramatic wit-albeit with great courtesy and aplomb.

An artist’s impression depicting Elizabeth performing the “volta”

The shortest play Shakespeare ever wrote was “The Comedy of Errors” which though registered on the 8th November 1623 was believed to have been performed at Gray’s Inn during the 1594 Christmas revels on the 28th of December. It was also performed a decade later at court by his majesty’s players as part of the Christmas festivities before King James even though it had not previously been published. The play “Measure For Measure” was also performed around Christmas, St. Stevens’ Night (26th December, 1604) according to the Office of the Revels at the banqueting hall at Whitehall. The play “Much Ado About Nothing”, although probably written around 1583-5 was registered on the 1st August 1600 along with Ben Jonson’s “Every Man In His Humour”, “Henry Vth” and “As You Like It” the latter being listed in the quarto as being acted by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men on the 20th May 1613. However, another record from the New Theatre Royal is the earliest known record of a performance in 1669 by Thomas Killigrew. There is evidence from a letter written by Mary Pembroke inviting King James to a performance of the play from Christmas 1603 saying “we have the man Shakespeare with us”. Aside from which the play was actually written to celebrate the secret wedding of the Earl of Southampton, Henry Wriothesley (Shakespeare’s patron) to Elizabeth Vernon, one of the Queen’s ladies-in-waiting who was also inadvertently pregnant with his child. Its first performance might have been in August 1598 with the assistance of the Earl of Essex, Elizabeth’s cousin. At that particular time the Earl of Essex was out of favour with the Queen despite his successes in the ‘Island’s Voyage’ and had retired to his country estate at Wanstead, Essex sensing the ingratitude of several nobles he had patronised and indeed the monarch herself. Elizabeth Vernon meanwhile had fled the court and was hiding out at Essex House fearful of the Queen’s displeasure. After Henry’s return from France and the marriage he and Elizabeth Vernon were subsequently sent to the Fleet prison and within two years London was overwhelmed by the Essex Rebellion in 1600 in which Wriothesley was implicated and transferred to the Tower. On the accession of James 1st in 1604 he was eventually released and his title, estates and nobility restored. (See “The Fair Youth of Shakespeare’s Sonnets”). It was rumoured that the Earl of Essex paid the Globe to stage a performance of “Richard IIIrd” on that occasion, but how true or false such an allegation was we may never know. (See “The Prelude to the Gunpowder Treason” and the “Denouement of the Catesby Conspiracy”).

Another of William Shakespeare’s plays that was not registered until November 1623 was “The Winter’s Tale” although a similarly named play was entered in the Stationer’s register on the 22nd of May 1594 by Edward White (A Winter’s Night’s Pastime). Simon Forman recorded a performance on Wednesday 15th May 1611 although subsequent records list a performance on the 5th of November 1611 at Whitehall before Princess Elizabeth on her wedding to Frederick, Elector Palatine. Another performance was recorded as being performed at court on the 18th of January 1624. The Shakespeare play with a festive title, “Twelfth Night” is recorded by John Manningham in his diary at the Middle Temple on February 2nd 1602 although it was later performed at court by the King’s Men under a different title (“Malvolio”) coincidentally on the 2nd of February 1623, the day after St. Bride’s day.

An artist’s impression depicting the performance of a Miracle Play

Another notable festive play, “Midsummer Night’s Dream” was mentioned by Frances Meres as being performed many times by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men in 1598 but recorded as being performed on the 1st January 1604. Additional research from the text however suggests it was probably performed to celebrate the wedding of Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland to Dorothy Devereux (1594), the wedding of William Stanley to Elizabeth de Vere (1595) or that of Thomas Berkeley to Elizabeth Carey (the grand-daughter of Henry Carey, Lord Chamberlain) in 1596. It was therefore a site/time specific play with fairies running around the estate or mansion blessing guests of the private party as well as the nuptial couple (ref: “Shakespeare’s Almanack”). One of Shakespeare’s supernatural or occult plays was “The Tempest” featuring the magus Prospero which according to the Revels accounts was first performed on All Hallow’s Mass on the 1st of November 1611. The academic Malim noted that thirteen plays and two masques were performed from Hallow’s Mass (31st October) to Shrove Tuesday (11th of February 1605) and that seven of them were by Shakespeare. “The Merry Wives of Windsor”, an obviously festive play was entered into the Stationer’s Office on the 18th of January, 1602 and published later that year in Quarto. The first recorded performance was on the first Sunday of November 1604 at Whitehall Palace by the Lord Chamberlain’s Men before her majesty, Queen Elizabeth. On the 20th May 1613 was listed a similar play entitled “Sir John Falstaffe” (a version of “Henry IVth Part 2”). A quarto edition of “Love’s Labours Lost” was entered into the Stationer’s Office for Cuthbert Burby in 1598 with a note that it was played before her majesty last Christmas at court, it was the very first play naming the author as ‘Shakespeare’ and ‘newly corrected and augmented’. The actual date of first performance remains unknown although we might guess the Christmas of 1597 of the old calendar date it would still have been 1598. Later in the same year on the 22nd of July was entered in the Stationer’s register “The Merchant of Venice”, an early play that was re-entered on October the 28th 1600 by Thomas Hayes. A first performance has been ascertained to be by the King’s Men at court on Shrove Sunday (10th February 1605) although it would have been acted several times before that. Although it was not registered anonymously until 1623 “The Taming of the Shrew”, of which several quartos of similar plays go as far back as the 2nd of May 1594, yet despite these anomalies a recorded performance is found on the 11th June 1594 at the Newington Butts theatre in Phillip Henlowe’s diary, apparently by the Lord Admiral’s Men. But additional research suggests the acting troupe could easily have been either Pembroke’s Men or the Lord Chamberlain’s Men who were responsible for its first performance.

A favourite theme of St. George slaying the dragon was presented in Mummer’s plays

Aside from the romance and comedy plays “Shakespeare’s” history plays served a totally different purpose in being performed namely to celebrate England’s glorious past and reiterate its continuing presence and importance in European history. Academics and scholars on the subject are at pains to determine the dates of first performance of “King John”, “Henry IVth Part One” or Two or “Henry VIth” parts 2, or 3 although some evidence exists for first performance of “Richard the Second” (7th December 1595), Sir Edward Hoby’s letter to Sir Robert Cecil. History plays as such were seasonally aligned to most seasons, spring, summer, autumn or winter. The Revels accounts record a performance of “Henry Vth” on the 7th January 1605 soon after “Love’s Labours Lost” and before Ben Jonson’s “Every Man Out Of His Humour” the following day with “Every Man In His Humour” on the 2nd of February. Phillip Henslowe’s diary records a performance of “Henry VIth Part One” by Lord Strange’s Men at the Newington Butts theatre on several dates, the 19th June and twice in January 1593 although other records (eg: Thomas Nashe) reveal an earlier date (August 1592). “Henry VIth Part 3” is of course mentioned by Robert Greene (Groatsworth of Wit, 1592; See “An Upstart Crow”) with his phrase “tyger’s hart wrapped in a player’s hyde” echoing Shakespeare’s own “Oh, tyger’s hart wrapt in a woman’s hyde”. The play was recorded as performed by the Earl of Pembroke’s Men on the title page by 1595. The play “Richard IIIrd” is mentioned by Frances Meres (Parnassus, 1598-1602) and John Marston (Scourge of Villainy, 1598). The Royal Shakespeare Company director Michael Boyd has theorised that the whole sequence of history plays from Richard IInd to Richard IIIrd forms an “historic octology”. The earliest performance date on record for “Henry VIIIth” was the 29th June 1613, the day the Globe theatre roof caught fire and was burnt down re-affirming that summer was traditionally an auspicious time for history plays as well as pageants and tourneys. However with hindsight it would appear an inauspicious time in summer to fire cannons or set off fireworks during a performance of any play! The history play thought to have been written by Shakespeare but not included in the 1623 Folio, possibly in collaboration with another author was “Edward IIIrd”, entered the Stationer’s Office on the 1st December 1595 and published in quarto for Cuthbert Burby in 1596. Ownership of the play was transferred four times from its inception up to 1639. Although no definite first performance is listed academics have suggested that it was played to celebrate the tutelage of Lord Hunsdon with the Lord Chamberlain’s Men in 1594.

Finally, we come to the subject of “Shakespeare’s Tragedies” and the first from the 1623 Folio was “Troillus & Cressida” of which no known or recorded date has been established even before the Restoration period (1668). The Stationer’s register does however list “as acted by the King’s majesties servants (Lord Chamberlain’s Men, February 1602/3). Some researchers have ascertained a performance at one of the Inns of court or a Cambridge college (Peter Alexander & Gary Taylor) while Robert Kimbrough has argued for a first performance at the Blackfriar’s theatre in 1608. There is simply no known record of first performance of “The Tragedy of Coriolanus” and among suggestions are the Blackfriar’s in 1608 (Killigrew) the theatre it was probably most suited for in terms of size and capacity. “Titus Andronicus” however seems to have been performed as early as 1580 or early 1590 according to a reference in Ben Jonson’s play Bartholomew Fair. Another reference from an anonymous play “A Knack To Know a Knave” performed in 1592 and another reference in Henslowe’s diary dated 11th April 1592 at the Rose by Lord Strange’s Men. While another reference dates to the Lord Sussex’s Men on the 24th January 1594 and another record for June 1594 by Lord Admiral’s and Lord Chamberlain’s Men is marked as new on the 11th of June 1596. One of Shakespeare’s greatest and well-known tragedies “Romeo & Juliet” has no recorded performance before 1660 but we do know it was performed by Lord Hunsdon’s Men (aka: Henry Carey-Lord Chamberlain, 1585-1596). Lord Hunsdon, who maintained an actor’s company from 1564 died in 1596 being replaced by his son George Carey on the 17th March 1597. The play was registered by Nicholas Ling at the Stationer’s register on the 22nd of January 1607 and later transferred to John Smethwicke on the 19th of November 1607. Oxfordians agree that the play may have been composed as early as 1581-2 when the Earl of Oxford was involved in a swordfight just after his release from the Tower, between his mistress’s uncle Thomas Knyvett following Anne Vavasour’s birth of an illegitimate child to Edward de Vere.

The play entitled “The Life of Tymon of Athens” may have been performed before it was registered for publication in November 1623 but no evidence exists prior to 1674 by Thomas Shadwell. “The Life & Death of Julius Caesar” would have been composed around 1579-80 but the earliest known record of performance may be at Whitehall in 1612-13 from John Heminges’s accounts. Another diarist from Switzerland, Thomas Platter mentions the ‘thatched cottage’ (presumed to be the Globe or Rose Theatre) on the 21st of September 1599 but it is generally accepted that it was the first play to be publicly performed at the newly-built Globe on the 12th June 1599 which according to the Julian calendar was midsummer’s day. “The Tragedy of Macbeth” was entered into the Stationer’s Office on the 8th November 1623 and Chambers suggests a first performance date of around 1611 when it was mentioned by Simon Forman who refrained from mentioning either the porter scene and the three witches which suggests they might have been added to Shakespeare’s play much later (Thomas Middleton). Here Chambers suggests that an earlier anonymous version entitled “King of Scots” presented at court around 1567-8 but was revised for a formal occasion of King James’s arrival at court greeted by Matthew Gwinne at Oxford on the 27th August 1605. Some chroniclers have suggested the play was about the assassination of Henri IIIrd, others suggest it was concerned with the “Gunpowder Plot” in 1605 and must have been written later when the priest Henry Garnett first denied and then confessed his own participation in it. A play that should have been listed amongst either the tragedies but which is still considered either a problem or romance play was “Pericles, Prince of Tyre” because the publishers had not yet acquired the copyright. It was registered at the Stationer’s Office at the same time as “Antony & Cleopatra” in May 1608 for Edward Blount but the play was not published until 1609 and then oddly listed as entered by Henry Gosson. No definite first performance is recorded other than it had been performed sundry times by the King’s Men at the Globe theatre. “The Two Gentlemen of Verona” although presumed to be an early play mentioned by Frances Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) was not published until November 1623 and no known first performance has been recorded. A similarly themed play “The Two Noble Kinsmen” presumed to be a collaboration between John Fletcher with Shakespeare was not listed until the 8th of April 1634 and said to have been performed by the King’s Men at the Blackfriar’s theatre. In 1614 Ben Jonson alludes to the play but a fragment of textual evidence suggests it was considered for performance at court in 1619.

Image from a medieval manuscript depicting a Mummer’s play

“The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark” published in 1603 according to the First Quarto had been performed by his Highnesses’s Servants at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge previously. There were several topical references to Hamlet during the last years of Elizabeth’s reign which hint at a performance date as early as 1589 (Robert Greene’s Menaphon) “He will afford you whole Hamlets, I should say handfuls of tragical speeches”. Henlowe’s diaries meanwhile reveal a record of a performance at the Newington Butts theatre on the 9th June 1594 and a third by Thomas Lodge in his “Wit’s Misery” and “The World’s Madnesse” (‘Visard of ye Ghost which cried so miserably at ye theatre, like an oyster-wife’ (1596). While Gabriel Harvey’s marginal notes mention not only Hamlet but the poems Venus & Adonis and Lucrece (1598).

The earliest reference to a performance of “The Tragedy of King Lear” was before King James 1st on December the 26th 1606 although it was probably composed much earlier in 1590 (Sidney’s Arcadia) judging from the Stationer’s register of it in a 1607 entry. “Othello, The Moor of Venice” was listed as being performed on the 1st November 1604 at Whitehall on Hallow’s Mass although Henslowe’s accounts record an earlier performance on the 14th of December 1594. The other Roman tragedy, “Antony & Cleopatra” was entered into the Stationer’s Office on the 20th May 1608 by Edward Blount and again on the 8th November 1623 for some peculiar reason. Thomas Killigrew secured the rights for the Blackfriar’s theatre but any actual performance date eludes scholars even now. Another Shakespeare tragedy which was registered at the Stationer’s Office as late as the 8th November 1623 was “Cymbeline, King of Britaine” that was again mentioned by Simon Forman in his theatrical reviews (Bocke of Plaies) although an actual date is not given.

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